Taking Account

First printed in 1948, “Drawing Hands” is a lithograph by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher depicting “a sheet of paper out of which, from wrists that remain flat on the page, two hands rise, facing each other and in the paradoxical act of drawing one another into existence.”^[1] Escher often used paradoxes in his works. Douglas Hofstadter, in his exploration of self, I Am a Strange Loop, explains: “A strange loop is a cyclic structure that goes through several levels in a hierarchical system. It arises when, by moving only upwards or downwards through the system, one finds oneself back where one started.”^[2] I find that the story of service-learning at the University of Cincinnati is writing me as I am writing it, which could be considered a strange loop indeed. The story I am telling has also changed me through the writing process; the two are impossible to separate.

Jean Clandinin and F. Michael Connelly would consider my strange loop an example narrative inquiry, a mode of learning that requires telling and retelling one’s story while living that story.^[3] In an echo of Hofstadter’s exploration of the strange loop, Clandinin and Connelly describe the process of narrative inquiry as one “in which we are continually trying to give an account of the multiple levels (which are temporally continuous and socially interactive) at which the inquiry proceeds.”^[4] This central task of narrative inquiry—illuminating portions of a complex story while in the midst of living that story—has guided my research.

In hindsight, it is very easy for me to see why making sense of service-learning in Cincinnati has been central to my work as an educator and researcher. In thinking back to my letter of intent submitted to the University of Cincinnati’s Urban Educational Leadership program in 2005, I recall writing about how the campus could be and should be a driver for social innovation and the betterment of surrounding communities. Even at that time, I suppose that I was operating within the strange loop of writing into existence what would eventually result in my current role as the director of service-learning at the University of Cincinnati. Interestingly, however, at the time of drafting that application letter, “service-learning” was not a phrase with which I had much familiarity; nevertheless, I was articulating the role that someone could play within dynamic intersections that occur when the campus and the community cooperate. Many years later, I find myself sharing here, albeit it imperfectly, what that role embodies as a researcher retrospectively making sense of this story.

Service-Learning: The Concept

Most trace the connection of service and learning to John Dewey, whose work for both education and democracy laid the foundation for rebuilding the connections between school and community. Dewey’s classic works Democracy and Education and Experience and Education provide the intellectual underpinnings critical to service-learning, shifting responsibility to the educator to provide experiences that prompt meaningful learning.^[5]

In 1969, the Southern Regional Educational Board coined the term service-learning to describe “programs [that] emphasize the accomplishment of tasks which meet human needs in combination with conscious educational growth.”^[6] Since that time, the term has taken on many new and expanded meanings:

• 1990 – Jane C. Kendall publishes Combining Service and Learning: A Resource Book for Community and Public Service, using the term service-learning to denote an educational philosophy that embraces engaged learning focused on social ^[7]
• 1993 – The Corporation for National Service develops a definition of service-learning that includes the teaching of citizenship, academics, values, and skills through active ^[8]
• 1995 –The American Association of Community Colleges defines service-learning as educational experiences that integrate service to the community with academic instruction focused on critical thinking, reflective practice, and civic responsibility.^[9]
• 1996 – Barbara Jacoby locates service-learning within the larger field of experiential education in writing that service-learning is a form of experiential education in which students actively experience activities that address community needs with organized opportunities to promote student ^[10]
• 1996 – Julie Hatcher and Robert Bringle view service-learning as a credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and then reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic ^[11]

While there are many variations within these definitions, most agree that service-learning is a form of experiential education in which students are immersed in a course-related service activity and then required to reflect on that experience. Many also agree on the fundamental tenets of service-learning:

• Students and community partners should be considered both teachers and learners when entering into a service-learning relationship with the goal of leveraging the dynamism between the campus and the community.^[12]
• Students and community should both be made to understand the connection between the student learning objectives for the course and the service being provided to the community.^[13]
• Reflection and reciprocity must occur for authentic service-learning.^[14]

Researchers agree that applying course concepts to serve the community enhances classroom teaching and learning. Service-learning opportunities allow students to help solve local, national, and global problems by reflectively applying what they are learning in the classroom to their lived experiences while serving. Service-learning expands learning opportunities for students by expanding the place where learning happens. Through coordinated reflective activities, students reflect on issues in ways that allow them to apply their skills to the community, transforming them from passive absorbers of information into active learners.

Service-Learning: Outcomes

Service-Learning and Students

There is an extensive amount of literature pertaining to the effect of service-learning on students, faculty, institutions, and community. The impact of service-learning on students’ personal, social, and learning outcomes, students’ career development, and students’ relationships with their universities reflects the value of service-learning programs. Much research has shown that service-learning has a positive effect on students’ personal development, such as their sense of personal efficacy, personal identity, spiritual growth, and moral development.^[15] Service-learning has also been shown to have a positive effect on leadership and communication skills, and to improve students’ ability to work well with others.^[16] The impact of service-learning on students’ cognitive moral development is mixed, yet some studies do find that service-learning contributes to their moral development.^[17] Professor Marianne Lewis and academic advisor Sarah Jernigan of the University of Cincinnati’s Lindner College of Business describe their goals in adding a service-learning component to the first-year experience: “Through implementing service-learning in the first-year experience, Lindner leadership sought to enable synergies for business, social, and educational impact. More specifically, Project Impact opens students’ awareness to the positive power of business and their own professional capacities for civil good, while exposing them to non-profit and social enterprises. The lofty vision of an experiential first-year curriculum challenged project designers to be bold: they aimed to further students’ knowledge of business as a force for good, while also enabling them to discover their personal purpose and career opportunities accordingly.” This is just one example of how service-learning can be a tangible way for students to learn, and to learn to value, ethical business practices.

In addition to personal outcomes for service-learning students, there is also a large amount of research that focuses on the social outcomes for students. For example, service-learning has a positive effect on reducing stereotypes and facilitating cultural and racial understanding.^[18] Additionally, service-learning may have a positive effect on students’ sense of social responsibility and citizenship skills.^[19] Other research demonstrates that service-learning positively influences students’ life-long commitment to service, and the desire to volunteer in college is associated with involvement in community service after graduation.^[20] Austin Sprong, then a fifth year civil engineering student at the University of Cincinnati, exemplifies this turn toward community engagement and service:

Early in my college experience, … I spent a lot of time partying and drinking and doing things that I really shouldn’t be doing. But then I met people from Campus Outreach, and what I’ve been able to do with this organization since then has changed my life. … Because of UC’s service-learning program, … and having these experiences while being a college student, I have started to rethink what the future holds for me. Whatever it is, I plan to use what I’ve learned from doing service-learning with Campus Outreach to lift those around me.

As Sprong demonstrates, the realization that a person can make a real difference in their own community can be incredibly empowering.

There is also an abundance of research that demonstrates the impact service-learning has on learning. Faculty report that service-learning has a positive impact on students’ academic learning, while students report that service-learning improves their ability to apply what they have learned in “the real world.”^[21] However, the impact of service-learning on student academic learning as measured by course grades or GPA is mixed. Studies have shown the positive impact of both community service and service-learning on academic learning.^[22] While there are some studies that show no difference between service-learning and non-service-learning control groups in academic learning, service-learning participation has been shown to have an impact on such academic outcomes as complexity of understanding, problem analysis, critical thinking, and cognitive development.^[23]

Research also indicates that service-learning contributes to career development, as well as to students’ relationship with the university.^[24] For example, students engaged in service-learning report stronger faculty relationships than those who are not involved in service-learning, and service-learning improves student satisfaction with college and their likelihood to graduate.^[25] Rob Gioielli, assistant professor and director of the honors program at the University of Cincinnati’s Blue Ash campus, has seen increased satisfaction reflected in his students: “Overall feedback from students on the service-learning projects was tremendously positive. Students remarked that they were hesitant about the projects in the beginning, but enjoyed the experience, understanding how nonprofits worked, and making a difference in their community. Many also enjoyed and appreciated the ‘hands-on’ aspect of service-learning, and how they could see progress in a short amount of volunteering.” The “‘hands-on’ aspect” to which Gioielli refers reflects a general trend in student demands for specific, real-world experience.

Service-Learning and Faculty

There is also substantial literature discussing the impact of service-learning on faculty. First, faculty using service-learning convey satisfaction with the quality of student learning.^[26] They also report commitment to research and a growing integration of service-learning into their courses.^[27] As a very junior faculty member teaching Effective Public Speaking, I recall having conversations with other instructors for this class about how we dreaded speech days. Why? Because the students delivered speeches that were uninspired and, to be honest, not very moving or even interesting. Then a few of us started to experiment with service-learning, inviting community partners to class to meet the students and challenge them to create effective public speeches that would advocate for their organizations and the communities that those organizations serve. And guess what happened. The speeches improved exponentially! We were not teaching different theory, or using different text books, or really changing much of anything in the class other than empowering students to speak on behalf of the community. It was like magic. I, personally, have never looked back and have incorporated service-learning into every class that I have taught since.

Unfortunately, it has also been shown that lack of faculty rewards and lack of resources are barriers to faculty implementing service and service-learning partnerships in their courses.^[28]

Service-Learning and Universities

Researchers have also studied the ways service-learning impacts universities. Colleges and universities report institutional commitment to service-learning curriculum and a growing availability of service-learning programs.^[29] And while few colleges and universities require service-learning in the academic core, it is reported that service-learning positively impacts student retention and enhances community relations.^[30] I have received dozens of community partner testimonials during my various service-learning roles at the University of Cincinnati. Below, I’ve included two that attest to the positive relationship between our university and its surrounding community:

“Since 2019, we have hired three service-learning … students that have logged over 300 hours, … worth nearly $4,000 participating in medication inventory management, dispensing, patient counseling, and more. All of this was without burden to our minimal budget as a 501c3 non-profit. … [The students] involved have gained experience in an outcomes-based pharmacy that doesn’t just fill free medications, but ensures each patient is empowered to take ownership of their healthcare and experience positive change. Because of their experience with us, at least one of the students plans on pursuing underserved care pharmacy as their career choice upon graduation.”

—Lydia Bailey, Pharm., clinical pharmacy manager, St. Vincent de Paul Charitable Pharmacy

“I can’t thank the University of Cincinnati enough for partnering with us through this program and I look forward to continuing this partnership for years to come.”

—Isaac Kain, campus outreach supervisor

Service-Learning and Communities

Service-learning also has positive impacts on communities. Research demonstrates community satisfaction with service-learning student participation, and that service-learning provides useful service in communities.^[31] In addition, communities report enhanced campus-community relations.^[32] Latisha Owens, founder and president of Guiding Light Mentoring, writes the following:

The partnership with UC has been great. We were able to [work with] students … who were dedicated, passionate, and interested in learning more about what we do here at Guiding Light Mentoring. … These students helped us to revise surveys, manage our social media outreach, and better connect to young people who are struggling today. … We are passionate at Guiding Light about being positive role models, teaching about real relationship skills, and helping kids to understand the importance of good character, … and these Service-Learning … students were instrumental in helping us to continue our mission. … I look forward to working with more UC students in the future.^[33]

My experience, as well as the documented experience of other stakeholders, including students, faculty, and community partners, supports the above-described research. Service-learning at the University of Cincinnati continues to benefit all involved, possibly in more ways than we yet know.

Structuration Theory

Giddens defines structuration as the production, reproduction, and transformation of social environments through rules and resources in relationships.^[34] Structurational perspectives hold that individuals actively shape organizational structure, but it is understood that the organizational structure more readily shapes the individual. Thus, according to Giddens evolving structures usually tend toward reaffirming existing social rules and norms as opposed to changing them. Yet, critically examining the active, reflexive process of constructing structure and forming identity allows for emancipatory power of agents that shape and are shaped by that process. Seen through the lens of structuration, people have the power to deconstruct and re-structure the interactional milieu into which they are socialized. Through the recursive relationship between the individual and the collective, people have power to shape and re-shape the larger organizational structure. Therefore, what Giddens terms the production and reproduction of social life is an important idea for this and similar case study research. It is understood that individuals within organizations use rules not only to guide them and others but also to allow them to maintain or change an organization. The three assumptions to structuration theory are that (1) groups and organizations are produced and reproduced through the use of rules and resources; (2) communication rules serve as both the medium for, and an outcome of interactions; and (3) power structures are present in organizations and guide the decision-making process.

Structure

Giddens defines structure as the rules and resources used to sustain an organization.^[35] It should be understood, however, that structure varies from a system. A system is the organization itself and the behaviors that a group engages in to complete its goals, while a structure refers to the actual rules and resources members use to create and sustain the system. Structures are the rules and resources embedded in agents’ memory traces in that agents call upon their memory traces, of which they are knowledgeable, to perform social actions.

Agency

In structuration theory, agency is defined as behaviors or activities used in social environments.^[36] Agency is the agent’s activity within the social system and “can be understood as the fitful yet routinized occurrence of encounters, fading away in time and space, yet constantly reconstituted within different areas of time-space.”^[37] Structural stability and order is not permanent, however, because agents always possess a discursive control, which allows them to break away from normative actions and shift the structure; this possibility depends on the social factors present.

Structuration and Service-Learning

Any social structure is slow to change because agents (people) often reinforce existing structures, even when those structures are marginalizing and even oppressive. It is only when agents—normal people like you and me<EM>begin to think about those structures differently and, more importantly, act in ways that are different (enacting agency) causing unfair or unjust structures change. We have plenty of evidence where we can see this occur outside of the service-learning space (e.g., women’s right to vote, ending the enslavement of African Americans, civil rights legislation, and child labor laws). In all of these examples, it is easy to see in hindsight how unfair and unjust those structures were, but keep in mind that almost everybody simply went along with those structures and, through their actions, reinforced those structures unconsciously.

Most times people simply reinforce the structure because they “play by the rules” so as to not disrupt the apple cart. Disrupting the apple cart is much harder than not disrupting it. But when people discover that they have agency to change the structure, particularly when done collectively, things can begin to change. When applied to service-learning, then, students can be agents of change by working with their fellow classmates, teachers, and community members to interrogate, challenge, and even begin to restructure unfair social structures. I’m not at all saying that any of this happens in one class or experience. But, the cumulative impact of students being empowered to empower other people (who then empower even more people to collectively move the needle) can make some pretty cool things happen.

The idea that women shouldn’t vote today seems ridiculous because our culture’s practical consciousness, or internalized collective truth, was transformed when people started to talk about this issue in ways that made us interrogate this belief; they disrupted the apple cart! Thus, more and more people stopped reinforcing those policies and instead restructured. This is happening today, and how it happens can be understood through the dance between structure and agency.

Structuration is always happening. Most times we reinforce. Sometimes we disrupt and reinforce a new direction. We shape the rules, and they in turn shape us. But, and this is the most important part, we have agency to reshape the rules.

Question for Discussion

 A common struggle at many colleges and universities is securing resources to create and support a service-learning program. The overused adage in higher education is that there is never any money to do anything, but there is always money to do everything, which makes it crucially important to be able to articulate the benefits a strong service-learning program brings to the institution as a whole. In thinking about institution:

1. How would you say students benefits from a strong service-learning program?
2. How would you describe the benefits to faculty and staff?
3. How would you describe the benefits to the institution’s reputation as a good partner to the surrounding community?
4. For all three of the above questions, to whom at your institution would you describe these benefits? In other words, who could you persuade to give you resources? Who has the power (whether individual power or collective power) to support a service-learning program?

Conclusion

In this chapter, I introduced the strange loop of writing about research while in the midst of that research; this is a theme I will take up later in the book when I share with readers my methodology, narrative inquiry. I have outlined the existing scholarship around service-learning and its benefits to students, educators, universities, and community partners. I have also briefly described structuration theory and explained its relevance as a lens through which to view the project of service-learning.

 A Preview of Chapter Three

In chapter three, I will build upon this foundational understanding of structuration theory in order to introduce the power of fresh acts. This chapter will also discuss narrative inquiry as a methodology as I share the outcomes of my Service-Learning Listening Tour.